Borobudur, or
Barabudur, is a 9th-century
Mahayana Buddhist monument near
Magelang,
Central Java,
Indonesia. The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672
relief panels and 504
Buddha statues.
A main dome, located at the center of the top platform, is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated inside perforated
stupa.
The monument is both a
shrine to the
Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist
pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path
circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top through the three levels of
Buddhist cosmology, namely
Kāmadhātu (the world of desire),
Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and
Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). During the journey, the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the
balustrades.
Evidence suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the 14th-century decline of Buddhist and
Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the
Javanese conversion to Islam.
Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by
Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the
Indonesian government and
UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate
Vesak at the monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited
tourist attraction.
ETIMOLOGY
In
Indonesian, ancient temples are known as
candi; thus "Borobudur Temple" is locally known as
Candi Borobudur. The term
candi is also used more loosely to describe any ancient structure, for example gates and bathing structures. The origins of the name
Borobudur however are unclear,
although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known.
The name Borobudur was first written in
Sir Thomas Raffles' book on Javan history.
Raffles wrote about a monument called
borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name.
The only
old Javanese manuscript that hints at the monument as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is
Nagarakretagama, written by
Mpu Prapanca in 1365.
The name
Bore-Budur, and thus
BoroBudur, is thought to have been written by Raffles in English grammar to mean the nearby village of Bore; most
candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed
Javanese language, the monument should have been named 'BudurBoro'. Raffles also suggested that 'Budur' might correspond to the modern Javanese word
Buda ("ancient") – i.e., "ancient Boro".
However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (
Budur) comes from Javanese term
bhudhara (mountain).
The references about the construction and inauguration of a sacred buddhist building — possibly refer to Borobudur — was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu,
Temanggung Regency. The
Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned vaguely about a sacred building named
Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquer worldly desire and reach enlightenment) inaugurated by
Pramodhawardhani daughter of
Samaratungga. The
Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about the
sima (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a
Kamūlān called
Bhūmisambhāra.
[11] Kamūlān itself from the word
mula which means 'the place of origin', a sacred building to honor the
ancestors, probably the ancestors of the
Sailendras. Casparis suggested that
Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra which in
Sanskrit means "The mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of
Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.
LOCATION
Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of
Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes,
Sundoro-
Sumbing and
Merbabu-
Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as
Kedu Plain is a Javanese
'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high
agricultural fertility.
[13] Besides Borobudur, there are other
Buddhist and
Hindu temples in the area, including the
Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur,
Pawon and
Mendut, are positioned along a straight line.
[14] It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native
folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown.
[9]
Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft)
above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake.
[15] The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the 20th century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture,
W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a
lotus flower floating on the lake.
[10] Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the
Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many
Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus leaf.
[15] Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.
Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out
clay sediments found near the site.
[16] A study of
stratigraphy, sediment and
pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur,
[15] which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore c. 13th and 14th centuries. River flows and
volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the
Pleistocene.
HISTORY
1.Construkrion
There is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its intended purpose.
[18] The construction time has been estimated by comparison between
carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the
inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD.
[18] This corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 AD, the peak of the
Sailendra dynasty in central Java,
[19] when it was under the influence of the
Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during the reign of
Samaratungga in 825.
[20][21]
There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in
Java around that time. The Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus.
[20] It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu
Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite King
Sanjaya commissioned a
Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Ukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.
[22]
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya's immediate successor,
Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples.
[23] In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of
Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD.
[23] This has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise.
[24] However, it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the
Saivite Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the
Ratubaka plateau.
[25] This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the
Prambanan complex, which was believed that it was erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya dynasty's reply to Borobudur,
[25] but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang
2.Abandonment
Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of
volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between 928 and 1006, King
Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the
Medang Kingdom to the region of
East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment.
The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as
ca. 1365, in
Mpu Prapanca's
Nagarakretagama written during
Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in Budur".
Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.
The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory into more
superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two
old Javanese chronicles (
babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the monument. According to the
Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king of
Mataram in 1709.
It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the
Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of the
Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757.
In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, "he took what is written as
the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later.
